4.1.6 Individual and developmental differences in learning Quiz: Pearson Edexcel Psychology, Unit 4

The 20 questions

1. How do individual differences in learning arise, according to learning theories?

   • From differences in the superego alone, which are fixed at birth and cannot be influenced by any environmental experience
   • From differences in the unconscious id, which remains identical in all people and so cannot produce individual differences
   • From differences in height and body weight, which directly control the number of responses a person is able to learn
   • From differences in the rewards, punishments and models that individuals experience, which shape what they learn

2. A child is praised for sharing toys but ignored when they grab. Which learning concept best explains the difference in this child's behaviour over time?

   • Spontaneous recovery, since the grabbing behaviour returns after a period of rest without any new pairing of stimuli
   • Reinforcement patterns, since sharing is rewarded and grabbing is not, so sharing becomes more likely than grabbing
   • Biological maturation alone, since the child's sharing has no link to the consequences that follow each action
   • The unconscious id, since the child's grabbing is caused by an unconscious drive that praise cannot influence at all

3. In developmental learning theory, how is development described?

   • As a process that occurs through patterns of rewards and punishments, which shape the behaviour a child learns over time
   • As a process that occurs only through the unconscious mind, which develops through repression of childhood memories
   • As a process that occurs only through hormonal changes, so that learning experiences have no effect at any stage of life
   • As a process that is fixed by genes at birth, so that environment has no influence on the pace of development in childhood

4. What does social learning theory propose about how children develop?

   • That children develop through observing others, including the consequences that those models receive for their behaviour
   • That children develop only through direct physical punishment, with no learning from the models they see around them
   • That children develop only through the operation of the id, which removes the need for any observation of others in childhood
   • That children develop only through classical conditioning of neutral stimuli, with no role for observation of models at all

5. Which example illustrates how different environments can produce individual differences in learning?

   • Two children with different parental models for handling anger may learn different ways of responding to frustration
   • Two children with the same birth weight must always develop the same learned behaviours, since weight determines learning
   • Two children with the same genes always learn the same behaviour, so environment has no part in producing differences
   • Two children with the same parental models always learn identical ways of handling anger, regardless of their experiences

6. Why might a child who grows up in a household where aggression is rewarded differ from a child who grows up in a household where it is punished?

   • Because the two children have identical learning histories, so the differences must be entirely due to random chance
   • Because the first child has a higher level of testosterone, while the second child has a higher level of cortisol at birth
   • Because the first child has a stronger superego, while the second child has a stronger id that causes all aggression
   • Because the first child may have learned that aggression pays and the second that it leads to costs

7. Which is the best example of individual differences in response to reinforcement?

   • A reward that motivates children only when it is given at birth, since later rewards cannot change any behaviour at all
   • A reward that motivates one child strongly may have little effect on another child who values different things
   • A reward that motivates every child in exactly the same way, with no variation in response between any two children
   • A reward that has no effect on any child because reinforcement only works on adults and never on children at all

8. Which statement about developmental differences in social learning is most accurate?

   • Children may differ in how much they attend to and imitate models, depending on age, cognitive ability and their relationships
   • Children never differ in how much they imitate models, since all children imitate every model in exactly the same way always
   • Children imitate only their own reflections, so models outside the child's own image have no effect on learning at all
   • Children stop imitating models at birth, so social learning has no role at any stage of childhood development in practice

9. Which evaluation point about learning-based accounts of individual differences is most valid?

   • Learning accounts are invalid, since individual differences cannot be explained by any form of learning or experience at all
   • Learning accounts may underplay biological and genetic factors that also influence individual differences in behaviour
   • Learning accounts are fully complete, since no biological or genetic factor has any influence on any individual difference
   • Learning accounts apply only to animals, so they cannot tell us anything about the development of human children at all

10. A researcher finds that children who watch more violent cartoons imitate more aggression. Which developmental learning explanation is most relevant?

    • Spontaneous recovery, because the violence returns to the child's mind after each cartoon, with no new pairing of stimuli
    • Stimulus generalisation, because children respond to all cartoons in the same way, regardless of the content of the cartoon
    • Social learning theory, because children observe and may imitate the violent models in the cartoons, especially when rewarded
    • Classical conditioning of the id, because the violent cartoons pair the child's unconscious drives with neutral stimuli in the room

11. Which feature of learning theories helps explain why development can change over time?

    • Children's experiences change only through genetic mutation, which is not influenced by any learning or environment at all
    • Children's experiences of rewards and models can change, so the behaviours they learn can also change as they grow
    • Children's experiences never change, so the learning developed in infancy remains fixed for the whole of their life
    • Children's experiences change only through conscious decisions, so learning theories have no explanation for change in behaviour

12. A teacher wants to use learning theory to support pupils who are struggling with motivation. Which approach is most consistent with individual differences?

    • Identifying which rewards motivate each pupil, and tailoring reinforcement to the individual's preferences and needs
    • Giving every pupil the same reward for each task, since fairness requires identical treatment of every pupil at all times
    • Punishing every pupil who struggles, since punishment is the only consequence that works on any learner in any school setting
    • Ignoring individual preferences, since learning theory teaches that all rewards work in exactly the same way for all people

13. Which example best illustrates the developmental process of social learning?

    • A toddler fears a loud noise after it has been paired with a painful event, showing an unconditioned response
    • A toddler copies the way their parent brushes their teeth, after watching the parent do it many times
    • A toddler salivates to the sound of a bell after the bell has been paired with food many times in the nursery
    • A toddler presses a lever for food after being reinforced on a variable ratio schedule in a laboratory cage

14. Which limitation applies to explaining developmental differences through reinforcement alone?

    • It explains every difference in development perfectly, so there is no need to consider any other factor in any situation
    • It relies on unconscious conflicts, which means that it is impossible to test in any research study with any sample
    • It may not explain why children with similar reinforcement histories still behave differently, so other factors may matter
    • It cannot be applied to children at all, since reinforcement works only on adults and never on any child in any setting

15. Which concept describes children learning new behaviours by observing the consequences of others' actions?

    • Vicarious reinforcement, in which the child sees a model rewarded or punished and adjusts their own likelihood of imitating it
    • Counterconditioning, in which the child's fear of a stimulus is replaced by relaxation in a graded sequence of exposures
    • Primary reinforcement, in which the child receives food directly after each action performed in the presence of a model
    • Spontaneous recovery, in which a behaviour returns after a rest period, without any observation of a model at any stage

16. A child who grows up in a home with frequent praise for effort may develop different learned expectations from a child who receives mainly criticism. Which conclusion is best supported by learning theory?

    • The two children will have different genes, which explains all of their differences in motivation without any role for learning
    • The two children will have no learning at all, since learning only occurs in the absence of any form of feedback whatsoever
    • The two children may learn different expectations about effort and outcome, leading to individual differences in motivation
    • The two children will always have identical motivation, since praise and criticism have no effect on learning in any way

17. Which statement best describes the role of models in developmental learning?

    • Models affect only the id, so children imitate only unconscious drives and never the behaviour they see in other people
    • Models affect only adults, so children are never influenced by the people they observe around them in home or school
    • Models provide examples of behaviour, and children are more likely to imitate models who are similar to them or are admired
    • Models have no effect on children, since children learn only from direct reinforcement delivered to themselves in every case

18. Which evaluation point about developmental learning theories is most accurate?

    • They are fully supported by evidence, with no limitations or criticisms of any kind raised by researchers or critics
    • They explain how environments shape development, but they can be criticised for underplaying the role of genetics and biology
    • They have no practical use, since no educational or clinical setting has ever applied developmental learning principles
    • They explain development entirely through genetics, so they cannot account for any influence of the environment at all

19. A psychologist claims that all individual differences in aggression are caused by learning. Which response is the best evaluation?

    • The claim is incorrect, because aggression is caused only by the id, which is unaffected by learning or environment entirely
    • The claim overstates the evidence, because biological and genetic factors also contribute to individual differences in aggression
    • The claim is fully supported, because learning is the only factor in aggression and biology has no measurable role at all
    • The claim is irrelevant, because aggression cannot be learned by any child, regardless of the models or rewards they experience

20. Why might learned behaviour differ between cultures, according to learning theories?

    • Because all cultures have identical reinforcement patterns, so learned behaviour is always the same across societies
    • Because cultures provide different models and reinforcement patterns, so children learn different behaviours
    • Because cultures differ in their genes, so learned behaviour cannot be compared between societies at any point
    • Because learning occurs only in schools, so the culture of the home has no effect on what children learn at all

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